Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

It has become essential to every nation to access to cheap energy for their smooth functioning and upliftment of their economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among all the nations and the critical need for energy has led to significant vulnerabilities. Global energy security has become synonym to political stability and good administration.

Political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure and accidents and natural disasters are the threat to energy security of any nation. It is also the limited supplies of the most common forms of primary energy, i.e. Oil and Gas that changes perceptions on this topic.

Although plenty of coal, up to about more than 200 years worth, is readily available, almost all over the world, coal is not the fossil fuel of choice for many more advanced countries because of its highly polluting nature. The potential need to change our perception on primary energy sources in the foreseeable future and implementation of new technology, are the solution of the energy security question. Improper planning and ineffective strategies at macro level may lead to higher energy prices, more limited access to sources of energy, competitions and political troubles, which in turn make the threat even larger, as energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country.

One of the leading threats to energy security is the significant increase in energy prices all over the world. Long term measures to increase energy security lies on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of sources of energy and suppliers. Greater investment in native renewable energy technologies and energy conservation are envisaged in many of the developed nations. Certainly, every nation’s ultimate goal is to power their entire country with renewable green energy such as solar, wind, and other renewable sources. However, our current technology is not to the point where this would be affordable. Solar and wind do not currently have the energy density to supply us with all the power we need.

Therefore, under the above scenario, on broader sense, two technologies may be very useful and relevant, they are:

(i) Nuclear power, and

(ii) Green-coal power (Clean coal technology).

Nations of developed and emerging economies should think of energy mix of above two technologies in a big way to achieve fair amount of energy security. The raw materials for the above energy mix are present, almost, world over. The cost of power generated by above two technologies and energy mix is also reasonable and within reach of the general population and industries. After all, nuclear power is our one of the best option for clean energy today. In the above energy mix, Hydro-power may also be included, wherever available.

With the huge advances in technology in recent years, any shortcomings we face for the above two mix of energy, can be sorted out easily. Further, dependence on agricultural based biofuel can also be reduced, enhancing chances of availability of more food, thereby reducing poverty.

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing Arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

It has been reported that, due to rapid, unchecked and unethical industrialization in many parts of the globe, the concentration of methane, a very prominent greenhouse gas, has been rising and in last one year alone it has risen by about 0.5%. We all know that, methane is the second most important gas causing man-made climate change. Each molecule causes about 25 times more warming than a molecule of CO2, though it survives for shorter times in the atmosphere before being broken down.

Further, it has also been known to us that, already global climate is at great disastrous condition because of present rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, which is significantly higher than the average annual increase for the last 30 years. It has also been recently reported that, CO2 concentration has risen by 2.4 parts per million (ppm) in last one year; as against the average annual increase of 1.65ppm between 1979 and 2007. Thus, it shows evidence that, concentrations of greenhouse gases are rising faster than they were a decade ago. The methane concentration figure is more awesome and potentially of more concern.

Because of the above abnormal rise in greenhouse gases in last one year or so, scientists fear that, it could reflect melting of permafrost and drying of tropical wetlands more rapidly. It has also been reported that, concentrations of greenhouse gases have been more or less stable since about 1999 and thereafter rapid increases.

Industrial reforms in Asia, Europe and South American countries in last one decade reflected abnormal rise in greenhouse gases, especially of carbon dioxide and methane. Changes of methods rice farming processes and the capture of methane from landfill sites contributed to this rise, it is felt. Also, possibilities of release of methane from frozen zones of the world, notably the Arctic permafrost, as they warm cannot be ruled out.

The rapid unchecked increase in coal fired industries (without cleaning coal) such as power plants, steel plants etc., are mostly responsible for rise in concentration of CO2.

The sustained rise of greenhouse gases along with El Nino and La Nina (opposite of El Nino) conditions, the earth is experiencing warming effects. As per the new scientific analysis, because of the warming, the arctic snow melted most rapidly in last one year. They also predict that, the sea level could rise by more than one and half meters by another half century or so. Sea level rise of this magnitude would have major impacts on low-lying countries such as Bangladesh. Scientists also fear that, due to abnormal rise in average global temperature, in next five of six years there may not be any arctic ice left during summer.

Kyoto protocol – An initiative taken by various nations to limit emission of greenhouse gases:

Kyoto protocol – An initiative taken by various nations to limit emission of greenhouse gases:

During December 1997, more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate binding limitations on greenhouse gases for the developed nations, pursuant to the objectives of the Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992. The outcome of the meeting was the ‘Kyoto Protocol’, in which the developed nations agreed to limit their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, relative to the levels emitted in 1990. The goal is to lower overall emissions from six greenhouse gases (GHGs) - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs, and PFCs - calculated as an average over the five-year period of 2008-12. The objective is to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. As of November 2007, 175 parties have ratified the protocol.

A. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to a set of a "common but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed that:

(a) The largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases has originated in developed countries;

(b) Per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low, and

(c) the share of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet their social and development needs.

In other words, China, India, and other developing countries were not included in any numerical limitation of the Kyoto Protocol because they were not the main contributors to the greenhouse gas emissions during the pre-treaty industrialization period. However, even without the commitment to reduce according to the Kyoto target, developing countries do share the common responsibility that all countries have in reducing emissions.

B. The developed countries commit themselves to reducing their collective emissions of six key greenhouse gases by at least 5%. As per the convention, this group target will be achieved through cuts of 8% by Switzerland, most Central and East European states, and the European Union (the EU will meet its target by distributing different rates among its member states); 7% by the US; and 6% by Canada, Hungary, Japan, and Poland. Russia, New Zealand, and Ukraine are to stabilize their emissions, while Norway may increase emissions by up to 1%, Australia by up to 8%, and Iceland 10%.

Each country’s emissions target must be achieved by the period 2008-2012. Cuts in the three most important gases – carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂0) - will be measured against a base year of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived industrial gases – hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) - can be measured against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline.

C. Experts opine, actual emission reductions would be much larger than 5%. The richest industrialized countries (OECD members) would need to reduce their collective output by about 10%, as there was backlog. While the countries with economies in transition have experienced falling emissions since 1990, this trend is now reversing. Therefore, for the developed countries as a whole, the 5% Protocol target represents an actual cut of around 20% when compared with the emissions levels that are projected for 2010 if no emissions-control measures are adopted.

Some are skeptical about the scheme. They think Kyoto as a scheme to either slow the growth of the world's industrial democracies or to transfer wealth to the third world nations. Others argue the protocol does not go far enough to curb greenhouse emissions. Many see the costs of the Kyoto Protocol as outweighing the benefits.

Despite few oppositions majority of the countries support Kyoto protocol for reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and already started working in the direction of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases.

Carbon credit: As discussed above, the Kyoto Protocol has created a mechanism under which countries that have been emitting more carbon and other gases of GHGs have voluntarily decided that they will bring down the level of carbon they are emitting to the levels of early 1990s; thus carbon credits are generated by enterprises in the developing world that shift to cleaner technologies and thereby save on energy consumption, consequently reducing their GHGs. A company has two ways to reduce emissions. One, it can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases) by adopting new technology or improving upon the existing technology by attaining to the newer emission norms. Alternatively, the company may tie up with developing nations and help them set up new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby helping developing country or its companies 'earn' Credits. India, China and some other countries have the advantage because they are developing countries. Any company, factories or farm owner in India can get linked to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and know the 'standard' level of carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity. The extent to which they are emitting less carbon (as per standard fixed by UNFCCC) they get credited in a developing country. This is called ‘carbon credit’. These credits are bought over by the companies of developed countries - mostly EU countries.

Carbon footprints of power generation using various technologies – Useful for selecting clean technology:

Carbon footprints of power generation using various technologies – Useful for selecting clean technology:

All electricity generation systems have a ‘carbon footprint’, that is, at some points during their construction and operation carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases are emitted to the atmosphere.

To compare the impacts of various different technologies accurately, the total CO2 amounts emitted throughout a system’s life must be calculated. Emissions can be both, direct – arising during operation of the power plant, and indirect – arising during other non-operational phases of the life cycle. Fossil fuelled technologies (coal, oil, gas) have the largest carbon footprints, because they burn these fuels during operation. Non-fossil fuel based technologies such as wind, photovoltaic (solar), hydro, biomass, wave / tidal and nuclear are often referred to as ‘low carbon’ or ‘carbon neutral’ because they do not emit CO2 during their operation. However, they are not ‘carbon free’ forms of generation since CO2 emissions do arise in other phases of their life cycle such as during extraction, construction, maintenance and decommissioning.

A ‘carbon footprint’ is the total amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, emitted over the full life cycle of a process or product. It is expressed as grams of CO2 equivalent per kilowatt hour of generation (gCO2eq/kWh), which accounts for the different global warming effects of other greenhouse gases.

Calculating carbon footprints - Carbon footprints are calculated using a method called life cycle assessment (LCA). This method is used to analyze the cumulative environmental impacts of a process or product through all the stages of its life. It takes into account energy inputs and emission outputs throughout the whole production chain from exploration and extraction of raw materials to processing, transport and final use. The LCA method is internationally accredited by ISO 14000 standards.

Carbon footprints:

a. Fossil fuelled technologies - The carbon footprint of fossil fuelled power plants is dominated by emissions during their operation. Indirect emissions during other life cycle phases such as raw material extraction and plant construction are relatively minor.

i) Coal burning power systems have the largest carbon footprint of all the electricity generation systems analyzed here. Conventional coal combustion systems result in emissions of the order of >1,000 gCO2eq/kWh. Lower emissions can be achieved using newer gasification plants (<800gco2eq/kwh),>

ii) Oil accounts for only a very small proportion (about 1%) of the electricity generated in most of the countries. It is primarily used as a back-up fuel to cover peak electricity demand periods. The average carbon footprint of oil-fired electricity generation plants is ~650gCO2eq/kWh.

iii) Current gas powered electricity generation has a carbon footprint around half that of coal (~500gCO2eq/kWh), because gas has a lower carbon content than coal. Like coal fired plants, gas plants could co-fire biomass to reduce carbon emissions in the future.

b. Low carbon technologies - In contrast to fossil fuelled power generation, the common feature of renewable and nuclear energy systems is that emissions of greenhouse gases and other atmospheric pollutants are ‘indirect’, that is, they arise from stages of the life cycle other than power generation.

i) Biomass - Biomass is obtained from organic matter, either directly from dedicated energy crops like short-rotation coppice willow and grasses such as straw, or indirectly from industrial and agricultural by-products such as wood-chips. The use of biomass is generally classed as ‘carbon neutral’ because the CO2 released by burning is equivalent to the CO2 absorbed by the plants during their growth. However, other life cycle energy inputs affect this ‘carbon neutral’ balance, for example emissions arise from fertilizer production, harvesting, drying and transportation.

Biomass fuels are much lower in energy and density than fossil fuels. This means that large quantities of biomass must be grown and harvested to produce enough feedstock for combustion in a power station. Transporting large amounts of feedstock increases life cycle CO2 emissions, so biomass electricity generation is most suited to small-scale local generation facilities,

ii) Photovoltaic (PV) - Photovoltaic (PV), also known as solar cells, are made of crystalline silicon, a semi-conducting material which converts sunlight into electricity. The silicon required for PV modules is extracted from quartz sand at high temperatures. This is the most energy intensive phase of PV module production, accounting for 60% of the total energy requirement. Life cycle CO2 emissions for photovoltaic power systems are currently 58gCO2eq/kWh. However, future reductions in the carbon footprint of PV cells are expected to be achieved in thin film technologies which use thinner layers of silicon, and with the development new semi-conducting materials which are less energy intensive.

iii) Marine technologies (wave and tidal) - There are two types of marine energy devices; wave energy converters and tidal (stream and barrage) devices. Marine based electricity generation is still an emerging technology and is not yet operating on a commercial scale.

iv) Hydro - Hydropower converts the energy from flowing water, via turbines and generators, into electricity. There are two main types of hydroelectric schemes; storage and run-of -river. Storage schemes require dams. In run-of-river schemes, turbines are placed in the natural flow of a river. Once in operation, hydro schemes emit very little CO2, although some methane emissions do arise due to decomposition of flooded vegetation. Storage schemes have a higher footprint, (~10-30gCO2eq/kWh), than run-of-river schemes as they require large amounts of raw materials (steel and concrete) to construct the dam.

v) Wind - Electricity generated from wind energy has one of the lowest carbon footprints. As with other low carbon technologies, nearly all the emissions occur during the manufacturing and construction phases, arising from the production of steel for the tower, concrete for the foundations and epoxy/fibreglass for the rotor blades. Emissions generated during operation of wind turbines arise from routine maintenance inspection trips. This includes use of lubricants and transport. Onshore wind turbines are accessed by vehicle, while offshore turbines are maintained using boats and helicopters. The manufacturing process for both onshore and offshore wind plant is very similar, so life cycle assessment shows that there is little difference between the carbon footprints of onshore (4.64gCO2eq/kWh) versus offshore (5.25gCO2eq/kWh) wind generation.

vi) Nuclear - Nuclear power generation has a relatively small carbon footprints (~5gCO2eq/kWh). Since there is no combustion, (heat is generated by fission of uranium or plutonium), operational CO2 emissions account for <1%>

Carbon footprint – Its reduction means to tackle global warming:

Carbon footprint – Its reduction means to tackle global warming:

A carbon footprint is a ‘measure of the impact of human activities leave on the environment in terms of the amount of green house gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide’. It is meant to be useful for individuals and organizations to conceptualize their personal or organizational impact in contributing to global warming.

Reduce your carbon footprint. Whether in coal, oil or gas, carbon is the essential ingredient of all fossil fuels. When these fuels are burned to provide energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), a "greenhouse gas", is released to the Earth’s atmosphere.

As we’ve become more dependent on carbon-based fuels, we’ve seen a rapid increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2; from around 280 parts per million (ppm) before the industrial revolution, to 370 ppm today. If current trends of fossil fuel use continue the concentration of CO2 is likely to exceed 700 ppm by the end of this century. According to experts, this could lead to global warming of between 1.4 and 5.8°C, which may results in more frequent severe weather conditions and damage to many natural ecosystems. Many believe that it is realistic to promote actions that ensure stabilization of atmospheric CO2 concentrations at around 500-550 ppm. This is a considerable challenge, given that global energy demand is expected to double between 2000 and 2050.

To achieve carbon stabilization, we need to ask ourselves some tough questions:

a. What exactly is our current relationship with carbon?

b. How can we reduce our dependency on carbon emitting technologies and fuels - our carbon footprint?

c. What steps are others taking around the world?
As carbon footprint is the measure of carbon dioxide during the life of a particular industry, ‘life cycle’ concept of carbon footprint is familiar. The life cycle concept of the carbon footprint means that it is all-encompassing and includes all possible causes that give rise to carbon emissions. In other words, all direct (on-site, internal) and indirect emissions (off-site, external, embodied, upstream, downstream etc.) need to be taken into account.

The carbon footprint can be efficiently and effectively reduced by applying the following steps:

(a) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to accurately determine the current carbon footprint,

(b) Identification of hot-spots in terms of energy consumption and associated CO₂-emissions,

(c) Optimisation of energy efficiency and, thus, reduction of CO2-emissions and reduction of other GHG emissions contributed from production processes,

(d) Identification of solutions to neutralise the CO2 emissions that cannot be eliminated by energy saving measures,

(e) The last important step includes carbon offsetting; investment in projects that aim at the reducing CO2 emissions, for instance bio-fuels or tree planting activities.

Expected impacts of global warming:

Expected impacts of global warming – would certainly be very harmful and dangerous:

A large body of scientific studies, exhaustively reviewed, has produced a long list of possibilities of impacts of global warming. Nobody can say that any of the items on the list are certain to happen. But most of the climate experts agree that the impacts listed below are more likely to happen. The exact timings, for them, are difficult to predict, but they are in the opinion that, if humanity manages to begin restraining its emissions within the next few decades, so that greenhouse gases do not rise beyond twice the pre-industrial level (we are already 35% above it and rising each year, at an accelerating rate) the consequences would certainly be very dangerous - probably including a radical reorganization and impoverishment of many of the ecosystems that sustain our civilization. Expected impacts are:

(1) Most places will continue to get warmer, especially at night and in winter. The temperature change will benefit some regions, at least for a time, while harming others like, patterns of tourism will shift. The warmer winters will benefit health in some areas, but globally, mortality will rise due to summer heat waves and other effects.

(2) Sea levels will continue to rise for many centuries. The last time the planet was 3°C warmer than now, the sea level was roughly 5 meters higher. That submerged coastlines where many millions of people now live. Also, storm surges will cause emergencies.

(3) Weather patterns will keep changing, probably toward an intensified water cycle with stronger floods and droughts. Most regions that are now subject to droughts are expected to get drier (because of warming as well as less precipitation), and most wet regions will get wetter. Changes in extreme weather events are hard to predict, but in some regions storms with more intense rainfall are liable to bring worse floods. Mountain glaciers and winter snowcap will shrink, jeopardizing many water supply systems. Each of these changes has already begun to happen in some regions.

(4) Ecosystems will be stressed, although some managed agricultural and forestry systems will benefit, at least in the early decades of warming. Uncounted valuable species, especially in the Arctic, mountain areas, and tropical seas, must shift their ranges. Many that cannot will face extinction. A variety of pests and tropical diseases are expected to spread to warmed regions. Each of these problems has already been observed in numerous places.

(5) Increased carbon dioxide levels will affect biological systems independent of climate change. Some crops will be fertilized, as will some invasive weeds (the balance of benefit vs. harm is uncertain). The oceans will continue to become markedly more acidic, gravely endangering coral reefs, and probably harming fisheries and other marine life.

(6) There will be significant unforeseen impacts. Most of these will probably be harmful, since human and natural systems are well adapted to the present climate.

Climate Change Science – Global warming – an overview:

Climate Change Science – Global warming – an overview:

A. Climate change is a global issue that affects us all. Changes in climate patterns mean that extreme weather events such as heat waves, floods, storms, droughts and bushfires will become more frequent, more widespread or more intense. Climate change science is providing a better understanding of the causes, nature, timing and consequences of climate change. Climate change science is a very complex subject. Various investigations, studies, reports suggest that world is warming up, but how this will affect us in the future is difficult to qualify. Climate change is the result of changes in our weather patterns because of an increase in the Earth's average temperature. The weather elements at a given location vary from time to time throughout the year, but generally are expected to remain within set limits over a long time period. This is known as our climate. This natural variation in temperature ensures we have cold and warm years. This is actually a natural and essential feature of our atmosphere without which our planet would be uninhabitable.

B. If go back to history of climate change and find people behind postulating the probable cause of it; we may more or less say that in the 1930s people started realizing that the United States and North Atlantic region had warmed significantly during the previous half-century. Scientists supposed this was just a phase of some mild natural cycle, with unknown causes. Only one lone voice, the amateur G.S. Callendar, insisted that greenhouse warming was on the way. In the 1950s, Callendar's claims provoked a few scientists to look into the question with improved techniques and calculations. The new studies showed that, contrary to earlier crude estimates, carbon dioxide could indeed build up in the atmosphere and should bring warming. Painstaking measurements drove home the point in 1961 by showing that the level of the gas was, in fact, rising, year by year. In the early 1970s, the rise of environmentalism raised public doubts about the benefits of human activity for the planet. Curiosity about climate turned into anxious concern. Alongside the greenhouse effect, some scientists pointed out that human activity was putting dust and smog particles into the atmosphere, where they could block sunlight and cool the world. Most scientists agreed on was that they scarcely understood the climate system, and much more research was needed. Research activity did accelerate, including huge data-gathering schemes that mobilized international fleets of oceanographic ships and orbiting satellites. People have come to know that, this is caused by increases in greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. By 2000, scientists knew the most important things about how the climate could change during the present century.

C. Therefore, when we talk about global warming, as described above, we generally talk about the 'greenhouse effect'. This process works by the principle that certain atmospheric gases (called greenhouse gases) allow short wave radiation from the sun to pass through them unabsorbed, while at the same time absorbing some of the long wave radiation reflected back to space. The net result; more heat is received from the sun than is lost back to space, keeping the earth's surface warmer than it would otherwise be. Man, in the process of industrialization and development, is adding to and changing the levels of the gases responsible for the greenhouse effect and is therefore enhancing this warming.

D. The effect of global warming is that, global ice sheets have decreased, so has global snow cover. There have been warmer periods in the history – some millions of years ago. However, the present rise is the most rapid rise in temperature since the end of the last ice age. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the gas most significantly responsible for greenhouse effect. Plant respiration and decomposition of organic material release more than 10 times the CO2 than released by human activities, but these releases have generally been in balance during the centuries. Since the industrial revolution amounts have increased by 30%. Other greenhouse gases include Methane, Nitrous oxide, CFC's (manmade) and Ozone. The major problem is that these gases can remain in the atmosphere for decades. The combustion of fossil fuel (oil, natural gas and coal) by heavy industry and other human activities, such as transport and deforestation, are the primary reasons for increased emissions of these harmful gases. Aerosol, from human made sulfur emission, also increases in the atmosphere along with CO2. The small particles of aerosol have a property to reflect back some of the sunlight and hence act to slow down the cooling. However where carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for 100 years, sulfate aerosols only last a few days and can be easily removed by rain (acid rain). Therefore they only temporarily mask the full effect of CO2.

E. In order to try and predict possible consequences of this warming for the future, researchers use climate modeling to simulate the climate and oceans over many decades. Climate models also predict changes in rainfall and rise in sea level. Sea level rises will be due to thermal expansion of the ocean along with the melting glaciers and mountain snow and ice. The recent estimate of sea level rise is by more than 50cm by 2100, but this will vary considerably with location.