Biotechnology to address many global environmental concerns:

Biotechnology to address many global environmental concerns:

A. Industrial biotechnology has come of age. Improved industrial sustainability through biotechnology addresses many global environmental concerns. Biotechnology has clear environmental advantages and is economically competitive in a growing number of industrial sectors. It enables reductions of material and energy consumption, as well as pollution and waste generation, for the same level of industrial production. Continued technical innovation, including that based upon recombinant DNA technology, is vital for the wider utilisation of biotechnology by industry.

B. With biotechnology, the emphasis is no longer on the removal of pollutants from an already damaged environment, but on the need to reshape industrial process technologies to prevent pollution at the source. Achieving ‘‘clean technology’’ or ‘‘industrial sustainability’’ – the two terms are largely congruent – will not be possible without a steady stream of creative innovations based on advanced science and technologies, among which biotechnology is likely to play an increasing role.

C. Although definitions of sustainable development have frequently proved elusive, it is clear that any move towards industrial sustainability will affect all stages of a product’s or process’s life cycle. It will require new design principles based on a global and holistic approach to reducing environmental impacts: global because these impacts transcend national borders, holistic because short-term, piecemeal solutions to address a succession of issues in isolation will be less and less effective. One important means of integrating environmental issues into industrial design and operations is the adoption of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

D. There are three main drivers of clean technology:
(a) Economic competitiveness, with companies considering the advantages of clean products and processes in terms of market niches or cost advantages;
(b) Government policies, which enforce or encourage changes in manufacturing practices; and
(c) Public pressure, which takes on strategic importance as companies seek to establish environmental legitimacy.

E. It is possible to foresee a growing role for industrial process biotechnology, both because it may afford clear economic and environmental benefits, and because the power of the tool itself continues to grow. The expectations of greater cleanliness come from the observation that living systems manage their chemistry rather more efficiently than man-made chemical plants, and that their wastes tend to be recyclable and biodegradable. This, along with our increasing ability to manipulate biological materials and processes, strongly points to a significant impact on the future of manufacturing industries.

F. Here there is a brief picture of how modern process biotechnology is penetrating industrial operations:

(i) Biotechnology embraces a wide range of techniques, and none of these will apply across all industrial sectors. Nonetheless, the technology is so versatile that many industries that have not used biological sciences in the past are now exploring the possibility of doing so. Already, the economic competitiveness of a variety of biotechnological applications to achieve cleanliness has been established. This is essential, as environmental benefits alone have seldom driven the adoption of biotechnology-based processes. Such processes have been successfully integrated into some large-scale operations. However, a number of problems remain for industrial applications, particularly the entrenched infrastructure of companies that have traditionally relied on physical and chemical technology alone and whose engineers have no training in life sciences or technologies.

(ii) Chemicals manufacturing is a major generator of materials, a major consumer of energy and non-renewable resources, and a major contributor to waste and pollution. In these sub-sectors, market penetration of biotechnology varies. It is in the fine chemical industries that the impact of clean biotechnology is most visible.

(iii)While fossil carbon (oil, coal) is the single most important raw material for energy generation and for chemicals, the concomitant CO2 emissions are a source of increasing concern because CO2 is a major greenhouse gas. Biotechnology can contribute to reducing fossil carbon consumption and hence global warming in various ways: improving industrial processes and energy efficiency, and producing biomass-based materials and clean fuels.

(iv) In pulp and paper, market penetration of biotechnology used for clean production is particularly high in many of the developed nations, and biotechnology is becoming more important in the manufacture of textiles and leather throughout the western world.

(v) In the food and feed sector, the impact of biotechnology on clean industrial processes seems to be greatest in the United States.

(vi) Biotechnology for mining and metals recovery covers two major technologies: bioleaching/minerals bio-oxidation, where superior cleanliness and economic profitability have been claimed in specific cases, and metals bioremediation and recovery.

(vii) In the energy sector, biotechnology has had a major effect both on economics and on environmental impacts. It has improved the overall efficiency of processes, particularly in the area of pollution control. Processes currently under development, such as bio-diesel, bio-ethanol and bio-desulphurisation, seek to replace energy-intensive and polluting systems with systems that are more environmentally friendly. The effect of rDNA methods on these technologies will be great, but large-scale application of rDNA has only recently begun and has not yet had dramatic effects.

G. Although the potential of biotechnology to reduce raw materials and energy consumption as well as wastes is attractive, there is a need for further encouragement, notably by government, particularly when the economic advantages are not overwhelming in the early stages of adoption.

Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

Energy security and reduction of greenhouse gases for cleaner environment – Most challenging issues of present day:

It has become essential to every nation to access to cheap energy for their smooth functioning and upliftment of their economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among all the nations and the critical need for energy has led to significant vulnerabilities. Global energy security has become synonym to political stability and good administration.

Political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure and accidents and natural disasters are the threat to energy security of any nation. It is also the limited supplies of the most common forms of primary energy, i.e. Oil and Gas that changes perceptions on this topic.

Although plenty of coal, up to about more than 200 years worth, is readily available, almost all over the world, coal is not the fossil fuel of choice for many more advanced countries because of its highly polluting nature. The potential need to change our perception on primary energy sources in the foreseeable future and implementation of new technology, are the solution of the energy security question. Improper planning and ineffective strategies at macro level may lead to higher energy prices, more limited access to sources of energy, competitions and political troubles, which in turn make the threat even larger, as energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country.

One of the leading threats to energy security is the significant increase in energy prices all over the world. Long term measures to increase energy security lies on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of sources of energy and suppliers. Greater investment in native renewable energy technologies and energy conservation are envisaged in many of the developed nations. Certainly, every nation’s ultimate goal is to power their entire country with renewable green energy such as solar, wind, and other renewable sources. However, our current technology is not to the point where this would be affordable. Solar and wind do not currently have the energy density to supply us with all the power we need.

Therefore, under the above scenario, on broader sense, two technologies may be very useful and relevant, they are:

(i) Nuclear power, and

(ii) Green-coal power (Clean coal technology).

Nations of developed and emerging economies should think of energy mix of above two technologies in a big way to achieve fair amount of energy security. The raw materials for the above energy mix are present, almost, world over. The cost of power generated by above two technologies and energy mix is also reasonable and within reach of the general population and industries. After all, nuclear power is our one of the best option for clean energy today. In the above energy mix, Hydro-power may also be included, wherever available.

With the huge advances in technology in recent years, any shortcomings we face for the above two mix of energy, can be sorted out easily. Further, dependence on agricultural based biofuel can also be reduced, enhancing chances of availability of more food, thereby reducing poverty.

Green coal for power - To take care of post-Kyoto issues from energy security point-of-view:

Green coal for power - To take care of post-Kyoto issues from energy security point-of-view:

a. Coal is the world’s most abundant and important source of primary energy. Turning a potential pollutant into a clean, green fuel for economical power production has become a matter for concern on a global scale. Coal continues to dominate the energy industries as the single most important and widely-used fuel. Delivering around 27 per cent of the world’s consumption of primary energy, almost half of which is used for electricity generation; reserves of coal are spread worldwide throughout some 100 developed and developing countries, sufficient to meet global needs for the next 250 years.

b. Although a combination of economic and environmental pressures has forced the closure of older, inefficient, fossil fuelled thermal stations, the massive growth in power demand on a world scale will continue to be met predominantly by coal-fired plant for the foreseeable future. In many of the rapidly developing and industrializing regions of the world the rate of consumption of coal as a primary fuel for electricity generation is actually increasing. In energy-hungry India alone, coal-burn for power generation is forecast to more than double in the next few years to 350 million tonnes per year. Annual coal production in China, the world’s largest producer, has rocketed to over 1,500 million tonnes. Nevertheless, post-Kyoto issues have heightened environmental awareness, forcing the pace of technological change in the use of this abundant but potentially polluting fuel for power generation. The environmental threat posed by the release of even more millions of tonnes of toxic pollutants, acidic and greenhouse gases from both new and existing coal-burning power stations is widely accepted. Currently, signatories to the Kyoto Protocol are focusing on solutions to the problem of global warming, including the reduction of CO2 and other ‘greenhouse’ gases. In many other non- signatory countries, major programmes have been implemented by utilities and power producers to reduce SOx, NOx and CO2 emissions. Additional environmental concerns have also emerged, including the potential health impacts of trace emissions of mercury and the effects of particulate matter on people with respiratory problems.

c. In contrast with both natural gas and LPG, hard coal can contain a wide range of compounds including sulfur in addition to useful hydrocarbons. The percentage of sulfur can vary widely, with relatively low concentrations in the highest quality anthracite and very high amounts in lignite, generating large volumes of SOx. As well as the need to treat the fuel prior to firing and control closely the combustion process itself to limit the production of nitrogen oxides, coal-fired stations based on conventional pulverized coal technology can only reduce SOx emissions through the use of post-combustion treatments. Further problems still remain through the safe disposal of fly ash which can contain high levels of toxic compounds including heavy metals.

d. Enormous environmental problems faced by operators of older, coal-fired generating plants all over the world, plants were forced to take drastic action after various public protests about the deadly effects of SOx emissions and other emissions. Emissions from coal and lignite-fired units at various power generating stations caused widespread damage, killing livestock and crops downwind of the plant and causing respiratory illness in the population in many countries. The plants were forced to cut output. This tends to place an unacceptably high strain on the commercial viability of an existing power station in many of the developing nations and represents a completely uneconomic option for the majority of obsolescent installations. Power producers in industrialized developed countries are therefore adopting a variety of leading-edge clean-coal technologies for electricity generation.

e. New clean coal technologies are providing an attractive and economically viable option to post-combustion systems. Applying the latest combustion, steam and process technologies in new power plant or upgrading existing coal-fired generating facilities provides significant improvements in thermal efficiency, reducing environmental impact and energy costs to the consumer. At the same time, higher thermal efficiencies result directly in reduced fuel costs, improving profitability and market position for the independent power producer.

(i) For new and smaller coal-fuelled generating plant, boilers using well-proven circulating fluidized-bed CFB technology provide a cost-effective and efficient system capable of meeting current and future environmental standards. They are now being widely used and successfully operated in coal-fired generating units, burning a very wide range of coal and other fuels with widely differing heat values and mineral content. These can typically include anthracite, semi-anthracite, bituminous and sub-bituminous coal, lignite and even ‘gob’ – a form of high-ash bituminous coal waste.

(ii) As an alternative to direct combustion based systems, coal gasification is becoming increasingly attractive, with Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) technology offering one of the best ‘clean’ options for effective power production. Gasification systems use steam and controlled amounts of air or oxygen under high temperatures and pressures to react with coal to form clean synthetic gas or ‘syngas’. Current systems provide efficient clean-up of the gas-stream to produce a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which can be used subsequently as a ‘clean’ fuel or a basic feedstock for liquefaction.

f. Used as a fuel for power generation in a typical IGCC generating plant, a syngas-fired gas turbine drives a generator, with exhaust heat from the gas turbine recovered to produce steam to power a steam turbine in conventional ‘combined cycle’. IGCC power generating systems are presently being developed and operated in Europe and the US, with commercial systems capable of operating at thermal efficiencies approaching 50 per cent. NOx and Sox emissions levels are minimized with the potential for carbon-capture and sequestration of the CO in the sysngas stream being actively researched as design strategies for near-term and future coal-based IGCC plants. Elemental sulfur is removed from the syngas before combustion and is a highly saleable commercial byproduct. If the gasifier is fed with oxygen rather than air, the flue gas contains highly concentrated CO2 which can readily be captured, at about half the cost of that from conventional plants.

g. As an alternative to the direct use of syngas as a fuel for electricity generation, it can also be processed using modern gas-to-liquids (GTL) technologies to produce a wide range of liquid hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and diesel oil. Coal-to-oil is a long-established technology in coal-rich South Africa.

h. Nevertheless, clean coal technology is moving very rapidly in the direction of coal gasification, with a second stage designed to produce a concentrated and pressurized carbon dioxide stream followed by separation and geological storage. This has the potential to provide extremely low emissions of conventional coal pollutants, and as low-as-engineered carbon dioxide emissions – a vital step in the fight to prevent irreversible climate change.

Faster ocean warming due to climate change – One of the reasons of catastrophic sea level rising:

Faster ocean warming due to climate change – One of the reasons of catastrophic sea level rising:

a. It has been reported recently by some of the climate research agencies in US, Australia, UK etc. that, oceans all over the world are getting warmed at a much faster rate than it used to be earlier or what was thought to be. It is estimated that, the rate of warming of world’s oceans is about 50% faster over the last half century than it was thought previously. Thus, world’s oceans have warmed more quickly due to climate change than expected.

b. It may be noted, higher the ocean temperatures, higher the expansion of ocean water – which contributes to rise in sea levels. Expansion ocean water means more floods, submerging smaller island nations, threatening to wreak havoc in low-lying places and densely-populated delta regions around the globe. A third of the world’s population living within 50 km of the coasts and a great proportion and a large proportion of them live much closer to the shoreline. Even a modest sea level rise could inundate low-lying regions, accelerate coastal erosion and force the relocation of communities and infrastructures.

c. Rising sea levels are driven by two things – (i) the thermal expansion of sea water, and (ii) additional water from melting sources of ice. Both these processes are caused by global warming.

d. For example, the glaciers or ice sheet that cover Arctic region contains enough water to raise world ocean levels by seven meters, which would bury sea-level cities from Dhaka to Shanghai in Asia and many more similar cities in other parts of the world. If the Greenland and the West and East Antarctica ice sheets were to melt, it would be enough to raise the sea level by approximately 65 meters. A one-foot rise in sea level might well translate to a 200-foot retreat of shoreline. Therefore, it could be imagined about the future coastal map how catastrophic it would be. Among the most vulnerable are countries with large populations in deltaic coastal regions such as Bangladesh, Vietnam, China and Egypt. Two populous island nations, the Philippines and Indonesia, have millions who face displacement from their homes from sea level rise. Several small island state nations including the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu in the Pacific could face extinction.

e. Global heating effects are strong in melting of snow and ice, rising global mean sea level, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind patterns and aspects of extreme weather including droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves and the intensity of tropical cyclones. The rate of rise in temperatures depends on if and how fast emissions are reduced and on possible adverse feedbacks in the climate system. Temperatures are sure to rise faster in the next decades as well. Experts opine that, hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. It is certain that the ocean would become more acid from taking up more carbon dioxide.

f. Therefore, it is very important, now, to figure out and estimate how much each of these factors contributes to rising sea levels. Further, it is critically important to understand global warming, climate change and forecasting future ocean temperature rise, as well. The fact is, up to now there has been a perplexing gap between the projections of computer-based climate models, and the observations of scientific data gathered from the world’s oceans.

Thinning of ozone layer – Effective checking would reduce global warming and enhance standard of environment:

Thinning of ozone layer – Effective checking would reduce global warming and enhance standard of environment:

For nearly a billion years, ozone molecules in the atmosphere have protected life on Earth from the effects of ultraviolet rays. It is a form of oxygen (O2). We all know that, oxygen we need to live and breathe. Normal oxygen consists of two oxygen atoms. Ozone, however, consists of three oxygen atoms and has the chemical formula O3. Ozone is formed when an electric spark is passed through oxygen. Over millions of years the action of sunlight and specifically the action of ultra violet light or UV on oxygen has created a layer of ozone high up in the atmosphere. This ozone layer resides in the stratosphere and surrounds the entire Earth. The action of UV light on this layer both destroys and creates ozone, a constant process going on silently. Thus, this process of absorbing portion of UV light, protecting us from the harmful exposure. In fact, UV-B radiation (280- to 315- nanometer (nm) wavelength) from the Sun is partially absorbed in this ozone layer. As a result, the amount of UV-B reaching Earth’s surface is greatly reduced. UV-A (315- to 400-nm wavelength) and other solar radiation are not strongly absorbed by the ozone layer. Human exposure to UV-B increases the risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and a suppressed immune system. UV-B exposure can also damage terrestrial plant life, single cell organisms, and aquatic ecosystems. In the past 60 years or so human activities have contributed to the deterioration of the ozone layer to a great extent.

Mechanism of Ozone hole - The criticality of ozone layer can be understood from the fact that, only 10 or less of every million molecules of air is ozone. The majority of these ozone molecules reside in a layer between 10 and 40 kilometers above the surface of the Earth known as stratosphere. Each spring in the stratosphere over Antarctica (spring in the southern hemisphere is from September through November.), atmospheric ozone is rapidly destroyed by chemical processes. As winter arrives, a vortex of winds develops around the pole and isolates the polar stratosphere. When temperatures drop below -78°C, thin clouds form of ice, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid mixtures. Chemical reactions on the surfaces of ice crystals in the clouds release active forms of CFCs. Ozone depletion begins, and the ozone “hole” appears.

Over the course of two to three months, approximately 50% of the total column amount of ozone in the atmosphere disappears. At some levels, the losses approach 90%. This has come to be called the Antarctic ozone hole. In spring, temperatures begin to rise, the ice evaporates, and the ozone layer starts to recover.

Thus, ozone "hole" is a reduction in concentrations of ozone high above the earth in the stratosphere. The ozone hole is defined geographically as the area wherein the total ozone amount is less than 220 Dobson Units. The ozone hole has steadily grown in size and length of existence over the past two and half decades. Now, the size of ozone hole over Antarctica is estimated to be about 30 million sq. km.

It has been observed that, man-made chlorines, primarily chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs), contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer and allow larger quantities of harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth.

Effects of ozone layer depletion - UV-B (the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) are generally accepted to be a contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased troposphere ozone, which is a health risk to humans. The increased surface UV also represents an increase in the vitamin D synthetic capacity of the sunlight. The cancer preventive effects of vitamin D represent a possible beneficial effect of ozone depletion. In terms of health costs, the possible benefits of increased UV irradiance may outweigh the burden. In other words, a thinning of the ozone layer is the key factor in the greenhouse effect, and exposes life on Earth to excessive ultra violet radiation, which can increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune-system responses,

As far as effect on plant is concerned, an increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanbacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV light and they would be affected by its increase. Thinning of the ozone layer also interfere with the photosynthetic process of plants,

Research has shown a widespread extinction of oceanic phytoplankton (a crucial source of food to aquatic life) is because of thinning of ozone layer. Researchers speculate that the extinction of plankton was caused by a significant weakening of the ozone layer at that time when the radiation from the supernova produced nitrogen oxides that catalyzed the destruction of ozone. Plankton is particularly susceptible to effects of UV light, and is vitally important to marine food webs.

Biotechnology in agriculture – Bid to eradicate hunger by increase in yield - To overcome climate challenges:

Biotechnology in agriculture – Bid to eradicate hunger by increase in yield - To overcome climate challenges:

Now it is known fact that, because of global warming, climate change is taking place. The effects of climate change are erratic behavior of nature, such as intensified drought, flood, cyclone etc. Now, it has become challenge to us to grow more food despite having erratic changes in world climate and nature. Further, explosive growth of population worldwide and need of using ethanol (bio-fuel) blended gasoline made us think about the increase in agriculture production.

Under the above backdrop, it is felt, biotechnology in agriculture would become the key to feeding growing population; take care of agricultural production in the adverse climatic conditions both for food and production of ethanol. Overcoming climate challenges like crop-killing droughts etc., are very important, for which science of biotechnology can be very much useful. Biotechnology scientists believe that, it can increase corn and soybean yields by 40 per cent over the next decade. New tools and biotechnology can work in conjunction with better breeding and higher yielding seed to give maximum benefit to human being.

We all know that, crop shortages this year have sparked riots in some countries and steep price hikes in markets around the globe causing lot of miseries and death due to starvation.

Now the question is how to address these issues effectively in order to achieve sufficient agricultural production to overcome crop shortages. Despite persistent reluctance in number of nations and environmental groups, genetically modified (GM) crops have been on the rise. Growing food and bio-fuel demands have been helping push growth of GM crops.

Water scarcity is one of the major problems, which is expected in doubling in severity over the next few decades even as the world population explodes, and will only be worsened by global warming climate change. With about nine billion people expected to populate the globe by next couple of decades and about 85 per cent of the population seen in lesser developed countries, decreased land for agriculture and multiple demands on water use will come hand in hand with an expected doubling in food demand.

Scientists opine that, by using conventional and biotech genetically modifications, crops can be engineered to yield more in optimum as well as harsh climatic conditions, can be made healthier, pest resistant and can be developed in ways that create more energy for use in ethanol production. As food prices increase worldwide and shortages causing starvation deaths; use of GM crops certainly brings a more practical perspective to the debate. Number of tools can be brought to bear with biotechnology to solve the crisis.

As discussed, the most widespread application of genetic engineering in agriculture by far is in engineered crops. Thousands of such products have been field tested and over a dozen have been approved for commercial use. The traits most commonly introduced into crops are herbicide tolerance, insect tolerance, and virus tolerance. In recent time, number of companies is engaged in developing genetically engineered seeds such as, disease-resistant biotech wheat, drought-resistant corn, crops that need less fertilizer and corn that more efficiently can be turned into ethanol. Biotechnology can also address health concerns of consumer and can contribute to healthier life as in the case of soybean oil where about 90% reduction in saturated fat and trans fat has been achieved.

At present, it is a challenge to world community to increase access to agriculture’s tools and any nation’s focus should be on its self-sufficiency, which by adopting biotechnology can be achieved, it is felt. Agriculture is an extremely complex system and needs expertise in technology to sustain an equitable growth for the farmers. Therefore, in my opinion, it is important to create partnerships, relationships among both the biotechnologists and farmers in order to bring practicality to address the problems.

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

Abnormal rise in greenhouse gas, methane, in the earth atmosphere causing Arctic ice to vanish in a couple of years!!

It has been reported that, due to rapid, unchecked and unethical industrialization in many parts of the globe, the concentration of methane, a very prominent greenhouse gas, has been rising and in last one year alone it has risen by about 0.5%. We all know that, methane is the second most important gas causing man-made climate change. Each molecule causes about 25 times more warming than a molecule of CO2, though it survives for shorter times in the atmosphere before being broken down.

Further, it has also been known to us that, already global climate is at great disastrous condition because of present rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, which is significantly higher than the average annual increase for the last 30 years. It has also been recently reported that, CO2 concentration has risen by 2.4 parts per million (ppm) in last one year; as against the average annual increase of 1.65ppm between 1979 and 2007. Thus, it shows evidence that, concentrations of greenhouse gases are rising faster than they were a decade ago. The methane concentration figure is more awesome and potentially of more concern.

Because of the above abnormal rise in greenhouse gases in last one year or so, scientists fear that, it could reflect melting of permafrost and drying of tropical wetlands more rapidly. It has also been reported that, concentrations of greenhouse gases have been more or less stable since about 1999 and thereafter rapid increases.

Industrial reforms in Asia, Europe and South American countries in last one decade reflected abnormal rise in greenhouse gases, especially of carbon dioxide and methane. Changes of methods rice farming processes and the capture of methane from landfill sites contributed to this rise, it is felt. Also, possibilities of release of methane from frozen zones of the world, notably the Arctic permafrost, as they warm cannot be ruled out.

The rapid unchecked increase in coal fired industries (without cleaning coal) such as power plants, steel plants etc., are mostly responsible for rise in concentration of CO2.

The sustained rise of greenhouse gases along with El Nino and La Nina (opposite of El Nino) conditions, the earth is experiencing warming effects. As per the new scientific analysis, because of the warming, the arctic snow melted most rapidly in last one year. They also predict that, the sea level could rise by more than one and half meters by another half century or so. Sea level rise of this magnitude would have major impacts on low-lying countries such as Bangladesh. Scientists also fear that, due to abnormal rise in average global temperature, in next five of six years there may not be any arctic ice left during summer.

Coal is Essential for Energy Security for many – Strategies to enlarge supply base and reduce environmental impacts are the prerequisites:

Coal is Essential for Energy Security for many – Strategies to enlarge supply base and reduce environmental impacts are the prerequisites:

A. More and more frequent environmental problems and disasters – floods, forest fires, tornados, air pollution in big cities – cause growing concerns everywhere. Energy harvesting, conversion, production and use contribute to these environmental burdens.

Hence, improving the environmental performance of the energy sector is of paramount importance. Thus, wider application of cleaner fuels and conversion technologies is a key element in the strategy to improve the environmental performance of the energy sector. Further, the lower price of coal as compare to petroleum based fuels; the interest in coal is renewed because of the more even geopolitical distribution of coal reserves and of larger supply bases of coal allover the world.

In fact, the environmental concerns about coal are not associated with coal itself, but with its utilization in different stages of the energy chain. Novel and more environmentally friendly technologies for coal utilization, commonly known as “Clean Coal Technologies” (CCT), are believed to be able to bring coal back into the picture. Hence, CCT recently enjoy a growing interest almost all parts of the world. At present, this interest mostly focuses on cleaner coal conversion through increased efficiency and CO2 capture technologies, for which large R&D efforts are ongoing worldwide.

B. Market implementation of CCT is expected to cause an increase in coal use. Coal demand could also rise significantly because the recent sharp increase in oil prices has a lower impact on coal than on gas prices. This is explained by the more favorable geopolitical distribution of coal reserves compared to that of gas. As a result, coal has become cheaper in relative terms than oil and gas. All in all, in a scenario of soaring oil & gas prices, coal is predicted to be the energy source with the fastest growing demand. The expected increase in coal demand for power generation raises the question of its secure availability in the future. Thus, enlargement of the coal supply base is essential throughout the world, with adoption of cleaner technology.

C. The enlargement of the coal supply base can take place in four main directions:

(a) More powerful mapping techniques for coal reserves - Modern geophysics and seismic techniques, improve mine planning and exploitation by reducing geological uncertainties and increasing extraction efficiencies. At the same time, they can reduce environmental externalities and energy use for coal extraction.

(b) Improvement of existing under-ground mining technologies - Underground (deep) coal mining accounts for about 60% of world coal production. Current best coal recovery rates for underground mining are 50-60% for the “room-and-pillar” technology and about 75% for “longwall” mining. The implementation of modern automated and computerized mining technologies can increase these recovery rates.

(c) Research and development for underground coal gasification - Underground gasification of coal deposits which are not technically or economically exploitable (anymore) with conventional mining technologies, can add enormous coal supply potential in Europe and worldwide. At present underground coal gasification is at an experimental stage. Significant further efforts are necessary to make it technically and economically viable. In many of the countries like India etc., commercialization of underground gasification technologies may reduce the energy import dependence and enhance energy security scenario, apart from creating new employment.

(d) Utilization of coalmine methane (CMM) gas - Methane gas, released from coalmines, has always raised serious safety and environmental concerns. Methane is highly explosive when accumulated in confined areas. It is also a powerful greenhouse gas with 20- times stronger global warming potential than carbon dioxide. On the other hand, CMM, which consists mainly of natural gas, is a suitable clean fuel. The capture and useful utilization of CMM can bring important synergy benefits in terms of enhanced security of supply and better environmental and safety performance of coal mining.

D. Therefore, for realizing the full potential of CCT, coal is sufficiently

(a) Abundant… only if we keep working on the enhancement of coal reserves,

(b) Cheap… as long as the supply continues to match the demand,

(c) Reliable… as long as the supplies are diversified.

To reach market maturity, clean coal technologies, covering extraction, preparation and conversion, need a long term vision and investment security. In the present pre-commercial stage they need firm political commitment and further R&D support.

Pollution problems of plastics - Strategies to reduce the environmental impact:

Pollution problems of plastics - Strategies to reduce the environmental impact:

Industrial practices in plastic manufacture can lead to polluting effluents and the use of toxic intermediates, the exposure to which can be hazardous. Better industrial practices have led to minimizing exposure of plant workers to harmful fumes.

There is growing concern about the excess use of plastics, particularly in packaging. This has been done, in part, to avoid the theft of small objects. The use of plastics can be reduced through a better choice of container sizes and through the distribution of liquid products in more concentrated form. A concern is the proper disposal of waste plastics. Litter results from careless disposal, and decomposition rates in landfills can be extremely long. Consumers should be persuaded or required to divert these for recycling or other environmentally acceptable procedures. Marine pollution arising from disposal of plastics from ships or flow from storm sewers must be avoided.

Recycling of plastics is desirable because it avoids their accumulation in landfills. While plastics constitute only about 8 percent by weight or 20 percent by volume of municipal solid waste, their low density and slowness to decompose makes them a visible pollutant of public concern. It is evident that the success of recycling is limited by the development of successful strategies for collection and separation. Recycling of scrap plastics by manufacturers has been highly successful and has proven economical, but recovering discarded plastics from consumers is more difficult.

Strategies to Reduce the Environmental Impact of Plastics:

(a) Reduce the use - Source reduction Retailers and consumers can select products that use little or no packaging. Select packaging materials that are recycled into new packaging - such as glass and paper. If people refuse plastic as a packaging material, the industry will decrease production for that purpose, and the associated problems such as energy use, pollution, and adverse health effects will diminish.

(b) Reuse containers - Since refillable plastic containers can be reused for many times, container reuse can lead to a substantial reduction in the demand for disposable plastic and reduced use of materials and energy, with the consequent reduced environmental impacts. Container designers will take into account the fate of the container beyond the point of sale and consider the service the container provides.

(c) Require producers to take back resins - Get plastic manufacturers directly involved with plastic disposal and closing the material loop, which can stimulate them to consider the product’s life cycle from cradle to grave. Make reprocessing easier by limiting the number of container types and shapes, using only one type of resin in each container, making collapsible containers, eliminating pigments, using water-dispersible adhesives for labels, and phasing out associated metals such as aluminum seals. Container and resin makers can help develop the reprocessing infrastructure by taking back plastic from consumers.

(d) Legislatively require recycled content - Requiring that all containers be composed of a percentage of post-consumer material reduces the amount of virgin material consumed.

(e) Standardize labeling and inform the public - Standardized labels for "recycled," "recyclable," and "made of plastic type X" must be developed for easy identification.

Recycling of waste plastics – To be done in an environment-friendly manner:

Recycling of waste plastics – To be done in an environment-friendly manner:

We find considerable growth in use of plastic everywhere due to the beneficial properties of plastics, such as: (a) Extreme versatility and ability to be tailored to meet very specific technical needs. (b) Lighter weight than competing materials, reducing fuel consumption during transportation. (c) Extreme durability. (d) Resistance to chemicals, water and impact. (e) Good safety and hygiene properties for food packaging. (f) Excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties. (g) Relatively inexpensive to produce.

However, plastics waste creates lot of nuisances and degrade environment in a big way. Recycling and re-utilization of waste plastics have several advantages. Recycling and re-utilization of waste plastics lead to a reduction of the use of virgin materials and of the use of energy, thus also a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Economically, in some cases, plastics recycling may be profitable. However, a number of factors can complicate the practice of plastics recycling, such as the collection of the plastics waste, separation of different types of plastics, cleaning of the waste and possible pollution of the plastics. A further complicating factor is the low-value nature of most of the products that can be manufactured from recycled plastics. Reusing plastic is preferable to recycling as it uses less energy and fewer resources.

A. It has been observed, to reduce bad effects of waste plastics, it is better to recycle and re-utilize waste plastics in environment-friendly manners. As per statistics, about 80% of post-consumer plastic waste is sent to landfill, 8% is incinerated and only 7% is recycled. In addition to reducing the amount of plastics waste requiring disposal, recycling plastic can have several other advantages, such as:

(a) Conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels - Plastic production uses 8% of the world's oil production, 4% as feedstock and 4% during manufacture.

(b) Reduced consumption of energy.

(c) Reduced amounts of solid waste going to landfill.

(d) Reduced emissions of carbon-dioxide (CO2), nitrogen-oxides (NOx) and sulfur-dioxide (SO2).

B. There are about 50 different groups of plastics, with hundreds of different varieties. All types of plastic are recyclable. To make sorting and thus recycling easier, the American Society of Plastics Industry developed a standard marking code to help consumers identify and sort the main types of plastic. Before recycling, plastics are sorted according to their resin identification code.The type of plastics (as per the resin identification code) and their most common uses are given below:

Type (Resin identification code)	Plastics	Common uses
1	PET	Polyethylene terephthalate - Fizzy drink bottles and oven-ready meal trays.
2	HDPE	High-density polyethylene - Bottles for milk and washing-up liquids.
3	PVC	Polyvinyl chloride - Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, mineral water and shampoo.
4	LDPE	Low density polyethylene - Carrier bags and bin liners.
5	PP	Polypropylene - Margarine tubs, microwaveable meal trays.
6	PS	Polystyrene - Yoghurt pots, foam meat or fish trays, hamburger boxes and egg cartons, vending cups, plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toys.
7	OTHER	Any other plastics that do not fall into any of the above categories. - An example is melamine, which is often used in plastic plates and cups.

C. Plastic process scrap recycling - Currently most plastic recycling in of the developed countries are of 'process scrap' from industry, i.e. polymers left over from the production of plastics. This is relatively simple and economical to recycle, as there is a regular and reliable source and the material is relatively uncontaminated. This is usually described as reprocessing rather than recycling.

D. Post-use plastic recycling - Post-use plastic can be described as plastic material arising from products that have undergone a first full service life prior to being recovered. Households are the biggest source of plastic waste, but recycling household plastics presents a number of challenges. One of these relates to collection.

E. Mechanical recycling - Mechanical recycling of plastics refers to processes which involve the melting, shredding or granulation of waste plastics. Plastics must be sorted prior to mechanical recycling. Mostly, sorting is done manually. Recently, technology is being introduced to sort plastics automatically, using various techniques such as X-ray fluorescence, infrared and near infrared spectroscopy, electrostatics and flotation. Following sorting, the plastic is either melted down directly and molded into a new shape, or melted down after being shredded into flakes and than processed into granules called re-granulate.

F. Chemical or feedstock recycling - Feedstock recycling describes a range of plastic recovery techniques to make plastics, which break down polymers into their constituent monomers, which in turn can be used again in refineries, or petrochemical and chemical production. A range of feedstock recycling technologies is currently being explored. These include:

(a) Pyrolysis,

(b) Hydrogenation,

(c) Gasification and

(d) Thermal cracking.

Feedstock recycling has a greater flexibility over composition and is more tolerant to impurities than mechanical recycling, although it is capital intensive and requires very large quantities of used plastic for reprocessing to be economically viable.

G. Lots of innovations in recycling of waste plastics have been introduced in many countries. We have to see, we should not pollute environment while going for recycling and use of recycled products.

Degradation of Marine Environment – Mitigation Management is Essential:

Degradation of Marine Environment – Mitigation Management is Essential:

Understanding the elements of the global oceans, their biological, chemical and physical processes and the linkages amongst and between them, is critical to understanding how anthropogenic activities affect and impact the oceans and coasts, and to developing effective management protocols to protect the oceans, coasts and their resources for future generations.

A. To start with, the facts about marine environment and its degradation are listed:

(a) Knowledge of the marine environment is limited,

(b) Degradation of the marine environment due to human activities is likely to be increasing due to increased shipping, ports, marinas, coastal housing and coastal development,

(c) In some parts the area covered by seagrass has declined by up to 80% since the 1960s,

(d) Trawling is having significant ecological impacts in some areas.

In general, degradation of the marine environment refers to damage caused to marine ecosystems and species and are considered as direct and indirect effects of various human activities.

(i) Direct effects of humans on marine habitats and biota includes dredging and dumping (reclamation), removal of biota (through fishing), and construction of marinas, port facilities or breakwaters.

(ii) Indirect effects include introduction of foreign diseases or species, and discharge of nutrients (accelerating the growth of some organisms) and other pollutants that can adversely affect marine biota and habitats.

* Direct impacts are caused by a variety of pressures, mainly due to an increasing population, urbanization and industry and tourism development.

* Dredging refers to excavation of sediments from the sea bed to make the water deeper, or as a part of an extractive process.

* Dumping (or reclamation) refers to the deposition of sediments in the marine environment to create new land.

* Both of these processes (whether they are conducted during extractive operations, construction of pipeline trenches, port expansions, shipping activities, or construction of marinas and canals) are destructive to many marine ecosystems.

* Introducing soil and mud into the water column increases turbidity and sedimentation, leading to smothering and shading of benthic flora and fauna.

* Reclamation results in complete physical loss of the natural environment.

* Over-fishing and some fishing activities (e.g. trawling, aquaculture) can have severe impacts on species and degrade marine habitat.

* Over-fishing of a target species removes predator or prey animals and affects the ecological food chain.

* Trawling (the dragging of a weighted net behind a boat) can include catch of non-target species, such as seals, dolphins, sharks, sea snakes, fish, turtles, crocodiles, birds and invertebrates (known collectively as by-catch), and has the potential to devastate benthic habitats.

* Aquaculture (farming of marine flora and fauna) can contribute to degradation of habitat (for ponds, access and infrastructure) and change the ecology of an area by contributing nutrient waste, and potentially transmitting disease or reducing genetic variability.

B. Functionality of marine environment protection - To protect the marine environment and ensure there is no significant further loss and degradation of marine habitats, biota and functionality by:

(a) Defining and protecting environmental values in order to protect and improve the condition of the marine environment;

(b) Reducing and eliminating (where practical) the major environmental pressures that degrade, or threaten to degrade, the marine environment and it's associated values;

(c) Conserving the marine environment and associated values identified as most important; and

(d) Managing and using marine resources in a sustainable manner and rehabilitating degraded marine areas where practical.

C. Major pressure areas – (a) Major shipping corridors result in direct damage to the marine environment by anchor drag and the need for dredging activities to maintain shipping channels. Activities at larger ports present a risk of introduction of species, accidental spills, potential contamination, and habitat destruction. Pressure from ports, other marine facilities and related infrastructure is expected to increase.

(b) Offshore petroleum extraction and onshore industry can place pressure on marine habitats and biota by releasing toxic compounds and nutrients, through physical disturbance and by light and noise pollution. Future increases in pressure are forecast because of expansion of the oil and gas industries.

(c) Pipelines that connect offshore industry to mainland transport infrastructure can impact the marine environment, especially during the construction period.

(d) Areas where people live and stay along the coast are also often subject to degradation of the marine environment. The construction of coastal housing can impact or destroy coastal ecosystems. The marine environment also affected by discharges of treated waste water to the marine environment. In addition, people need infrastructure to access and use the marine environment, such as jetties, wharves, groynes, sea walls, marinas and moorings.

(e) Fishing has a variety of environmental impacts, including targeting of particular species and size classes and potential to impact other species as either by-catch, prey or predator species. Even though the managed fisheries are relatively well managed and moving toward a whole-of-ecosystem based approach, significant pressure remains from increased recreational fishing, some non-compliance and illegal fishing. Trawling is a method of fishing that has been singled out as having a high environmental impact.

(f) Aquaculture can contribute to marine degradation from the release of waste, accidental release of introduced species, altered water regimes, and clearing of coastal native vegetation to support infrastructure

D. Marine environmental management - Model control measures taken by some of the developed nation to mitigate the effects are discussed below:

* Environmental impact assessment is undertaken by developers with projects that are likely to significantly impact the environment.

* Impacts have to be considered collectively, such as dredging, nutrient enrichment and the input of contaminants, and cumulatively where impacts from multiple developments contribute to significant, cumulative loss or disturbance of habitats.

* Marine and coastal habitat mapping are incorporated by some of the nation, in order to estimate the geographically the scale of damage caused due to human activities. There are many projects underway by such government departments and individual companies to map marine and coastal habitats. The capacity for mapping the sea floor has been enhanced dramatically by improved hydro-acoustic techniques. Underwater video footage has also been used in some of the cases to generate state-of-the-art maps of the marine environment.

* Mangrove assessment projects are also being undertaken by some nation to identify, document and assess information about mangroves, in order to assist in their management and conservation.

* By-catch action plans: The fisheries department of some nation requires implementation of by-catch action plans for prawn and scallop trawl fisheries.

* Biodiversity Trawl Project aims to gain an understanding of the impacts of trawling on the marine environment, especially with reference to long-term ecological changes.

* Various mitigation measures to be implemented to reduce impacts to benthic habitats from marine pollution and towed equipment, as well as mitigation to be implemented to reduce impacts to reef fish, will also minimize impacts to corals from various marine projects.

E. There are major implications for the marine environment if degradation pressures are allowed to continue unabated. Marine ecosystems will become more fragmented and less equipped to adapt to changing conditions, such as the effects of climate change. Trawling and over-fishing are also impacting on marine ecosystems and many of the ecological or species changes associated with these issues have not yet been scientifically addressed. Future challenges for protecting the marine environment will hinge on addressing collective pressures and cumulative impacts.